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Introduction to Genetics (H2)
Genetics (from Ancient Greek γενετικός genetikos, "genitive" and that
from γένεσις genesis,
"origin"), a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity,
and variation in living organisms (Normal paragraph text).
Genetics deals with the
molecular structure and function of genes, gene behavior in context of a cell
or organism (e.g. dominance and epigenetics), patterns of inheritance from
parent to offspring, and gene distribution, variation and change in populations,
such as through Genome-Wide Association Studies. Given that genes are universal
to living organisms, genetics can be applied to the study of all living
systems, from viruses and bacteria, through plants and domestic animals, to humans
(as in medical genetics).
Genes correspond to
regions within DNA, a molecule composed of a chain of four different types of nucleotides—the
sequence of these nucleotides is the genetic information organisms inherit. DNA
naturally occurs in a double stranded form, with nucleotides on each strand
complementary to each other. Each strand can act as a template for creating a
new partner strand. This is the physical method for making copies of genes that
can be inherited.
The fact that living
things inherit traits from their parents has been used since prehistoric times
to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the
modern science of genetics, which attempts to understand the process of
inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.
Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that
organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance, which are now
called genes.
The sequence of
nucleotides in a gene is translated by cells to produce a chain of amino acids,
creating proteins—the order of amino acids in a protein corresponds to the
order of nucleotides in the gene. This relationship between nucleotide sequence
and amino acid sequence is known as the genetic code. The amino acids in a
protein determine how it folds into a three-dimensional shape; this structure
is, in turn, responsible for the protein's function. Proteins carry out almost
all the functions needed for cells to live. A change to the DNA in a gene can
change a protein's amino acids, changing its shape and function: this can have
a dramatic effect in the cell and on the organism as a whole.
Although genetics plays
a large role in the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the combination
of genetics with what an organism experiences that determines the ultimate
outcome. For example, while genes play a role in determining an organism's size,
the nutrition and health it experiences after inception also have a large effect.
History (H2)
Although the science of genetics began with the applied and
theoretical work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century, other theories of
inheritance preceded Mendel. A popular theory during Mendel's time was the
concept of blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth
blend of traits from their parents. Mendel's work provided examples where
traits were definitely not blended after hybridization, showing that traits are
produced by combinations of distinct genes rather than a continuous blend.
Blending of traits in the progeny is now explained by the action of multiple
genes with quantitative effects. Another theory that had some support at that
time was the inheritance of acquired characteristics: the belief that
individuals inherit traits strengthened by their parents. This theory (commonly
associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck) is now known to be wrong—the experiences
of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children.[7] Other
theories included the pangenesis of Charles Darwin (which had both acquired and
inherited aspects) and Francis Galton's reformulation of pangenesis as both
particulate and inherited. (Normal paragraph text)
Mendelian and classical genetics (H3)
Modern genetics started with Gregor Johann Mendel, a
German-Czech Augustinian monk and scientist who studied the nature of
inheritance in plants. In his paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"
("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), presented in 1865 to the
Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced
the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them
mathematically.[9] Although this pattern of inheritance could only be observed
for a few traits, Mendel's work suggested that heredity was particulate, not
acquired, and that the inheritance patterns of many traits could be explained
through simple rules and ratios. (Normal paragraph text)
The importance of Mendel's work did not gain wide
understanding until the 1890s, after his death, when other scientists working
on similar problems re-discovered his research. William Bateson, a proponent of
Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905.[10][11] (The adjective
genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, "origin",
predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860.)[12] Bateson
popularized the usage of the word genetics to describe the study of inheritance
in his inaugural address to the Third International Conference on Plant
Hybridization in London, England, in 1906.[13]
After the rediscovery of Mendel's work, scientists tried to
determine which molecules in the cell were responsible for inheritance. In
1911, Thomas Hunt Morgan argued that genes are on chromosomes, based on
observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies.[14] In 1913,
his student Alfred Sturtevant used the phenomenon of genetic linkage to show
that genes are arranged linearly on the chromosome.[15]
Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation
causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are
located upon chromosomes.
Molecular genetics (H3)
Although genes were known to exist on chromosomes,
chromosomes are composed of both protein and DNA, and scientists did not know
which of these is responsible for inheritance. In 1928, Frederick Griffith
discovered the phenomenon of transformation (see Griffith's experiment): dead
bacteria could transfer genetic material to "transform" other
still-living bacteria. Sixteen years later, in 1944, Oswald Theodore Avery,
Colin McLeod and Maclyn McCarty identified the molecule responsible for
transformation as DNA.[16] The role of the nucleus as the respository of
genetic information in eukaryotes had been established by Hämmerling in 1943 in
his work on the single celled alga Acetabularia.[17] The Hershey-Chase experiment
in 1952 confirmed that DNA (rather than protein) is the genetic material of the
viruses that infect bacteria, providing further evidence that DNA is the
molecule responsible for inheritance.
DNA Stucture (H4)
James D. Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of
DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and
Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA had a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a
corkscrew).[19][20] Their double-helix model had two strands of DNA with the
nucleotides pointing inward, each matching a complementary nucleotide on the
other strand to form what looks like rungs on a twisted ladder.[21] This
structure showed that genetic information exists in the sequence of nucleotides
on each strand of DNA. The structure also suggested a simple method for
duplication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be
reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.
DNA Function (H4)
Although the structure of DNA showed how inheritance works,
it was still not known how DNA influences the behavior of cells. In the
following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of
protein production. It was discovered that the cell uses DNA as a template to
create matching messenger RNA (a molecule with nucleotides, very similar to
DNA). The nucleotide sequence of a messenger RNA is used to create an amino
acid sequence in protein; this translation between nucleotide and amino acid
sequences is known as the genetic code.
With this molecular understanding of inheritance, an
explosion of research became possible. One important development was
chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger. This technology
allows scientists to read the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule. In 1983,
Kary Banks Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction, providing a quick
way to isolate and amplify a specific section of a DNA from a mixture.[23]
Through the pooled efforts of the Human Genome Project and the parallel private
effort by Celera Genomics, these and other methods culminated in the sequencing
of the human genome in 2003.